Indice
Utente:Cicognac/Sandbox/5
L'acquisizione della lingua spagnola è un percorso naturale con cui i discenti nativi o stranieri imparano la lingua spagnola e, come dimostrato dalla ricerca scientifica, segue un pattern preciso. Tali pattern sono stati investigati e interpretati dal campo dell'acquisizione delle lingue straniere e possono servire a interpretare gli errori dei discenti, a individuare la loro posizione nel percorso di apprendimento e a impostare meglio la didattica delle lingue attraverso la didattica acquisizionale. Lo spagnolo appreso come lingua straniera/seconda (L2) viene solitamente indicato negli studi internazionali come "Spanish as a Foreign Language" (SFL) o "Spanish as a Second Language" (SSL). L'acquisizione si distingue dall'apprendimento consapevole del cinese attraverso lo studio verticale delle regole astratte e lo svolgimento di test di grammatica pura e di pattern drill. Nel percorso in cui si impara la lingua cinese e qualunque altra lingua, comunque, la lettura e scrittura sono due percorsi sempre interamente artificiali e non naturali.
Contestualmente, la didattica acquisizionale della lingua spagnola è un insieme di conoscenze glottodidattiche e implicazioni pedagogiche che derivano dagli studi sull'acquisizione della lingua spagnola e che sono discusse dagli stessi autori degli studi. Queste implicazioni pedagogiche sono mirate a migliorare l'insegnamento della lingua spagnola come L2.
Acquisizione della pronuncia
[modifica | modifica wikitesto]In generale, secondo la letteratura, l'acquisizione della pronuncia delle consonanti sorde (voiceless stops, VOT) in L2 migliora con l'esposizione costante nel tempo alla L2. Inoltre, la pronuncia della L1 può subire modifiche a seguito di una certa quantità di input e uso attivo di L2; il fenomeno è osservabile anche all'inizio di un corso di fonetica della L2 a causa della salienza dei suoni nella mente dei discenti in quanto sono suoni nuovi ("effetto novità") secondo Chang (2013). Infine, nell'acquisizione delle L2 sorgono dei problemi se l'inventario fonetico della L2 ha delle differenze con la L1. Uno studio di Gorba e Cebrian (2021) ha indicato che i discenti inglesi di spagnolo L2 che hanno vissuto in un Paese ispanofono per circa 4 anni hanno migliorato la pronuncia delle consonanti sorde /p/ e /k/ rispetto a coloro che non hanno soggiornato all'estero; gli stessi risultati si sono osservati in un altro studio di Gorba (2020). Un terzo studio di Flege (1987) svolto su parlanti che hanno soggiornato per 12 anni ha rintracciato anche un'influenza della pronuncia di L2 sulla L1 a causa del periodo di permanenza più lungo, del maggiore uso della L2 e del periodo di istruzione più lungo in L2.[1]
Riguardo alle consonanti bilabiali, Zampini (1998) ha mostrato come un gruppo di parlanti di inglese L1 che ha studiato in un corso di fonetica spagnola di 15 settimane (quasi 4 mesi) ha imparato a pronunciare la /p/ quasi come un parlante nativo; pertanto, ha mostrato che l'istruzione formale ha un effetto positivo sull'acquisizione delle consonanti bilabiale. Casillas (2019) ha ottenuto un risultato simile in un contesto simile (il corso durava 7 settimane, dunque quasi 2 mesi).[1]
In generale, l'acquisizione delle consonanti sonore nelle L2 pongono più difficoltà nei discenti rispetto a quella delle consonanti sorde, in base agli studi; ad esempio, come osservato da Zampini (1998) nei parlanti di inglese L1 che imparavano lo spagnolo L2, la sonorizzazione di /b/ è scarsa, per cui dunque la vibrazione delle corde vocali per sonorizzare la consonante (che altrimenti sarebbe /p/) è scarsa; lo stesso fenomeno è stato osservato da Casillas (2019), che ha aggiunto che un corso di fonetica di spagnolo L2 ha migliorato la pronuncia di /b/ da parte dei discenti inglesi L1 a partire dalla terza settimana. Simili risultati sono stati trovati da Nagle (2019) e Schuhmann e Huffmann (2015), per cui l'istruzione sulla pronuncia e percezione dei suoni in spagnolo L2 porta a risultati positivi. Secondo Nathan (1987), che ha fatto uno studio incentrato sui discenti spagnoli di inglese L2 (EFL), ha mostrato come il suono velare /g/ viene realizzato dai parlanti correttamente in spagnolo rispetto alle altre consonanti sonore; Ohala (1983) ha ipotizzato che questa peculiarità deriva dal fatto che questa consonante velare sonora, per essere pronunciata, necessita di uno sforzo articolatorio maggiore rispetto alle altre consonanti sonore. Infatti, serve un maggiore sforzo per mantenere il flusso di aria in zona glottale per pronunciare la /g/ rispetto, ad esempio, alla /b/ e /d/. In spagnolo L2, permangono comunque delle differenze nell'acquisizione del suono /g/; nei parlanti inglesi L1, deriverebbe dal fatto che la differenza tra /g/ e /k/ non è marcata come in spagnolo, per cui la necessità di distinguere i suoni viene considerata minore; dunque, di fronte allo sforzo di pronunciare e imparare /g/, annullano la prevocalizzazione. Nei parlanti specificatamente inglesi L1, altre difficoltà nell'acquisizione delle consonanti derivano dal contrasto tra le VOT con ritardo breve e ritardo lungo (short-lag VOT, long-lag VOT) siccome in inglese i suoni /p, t, k/ a inizio parola sono solitamente accompagnati a una leggera aspirazione, per cui si pronunciano [pʰ, tʰ, kʰ] ("power, take, can"); l'aspirazione ritarda il momento in cui si pronuncia la prima vocale nella parola, per cui in inglese quei tre suoni sono classificati come "consonanti sorde con ritardo lungo". Siccome in lingue come lo spagnolo (ma anche l'italiano, portoghese e francese) non ci sono distinzioni tra consonanti sorde aspirate e non aspirate, se la lingua madre (L1) la possiede allora può creare confusione nella pronuncia per un transfer negativo di conoscenza (un trasferimento che porta a errori per interferenza con L1).[1] Secondo una ricerca più recente di Gorba e Celian (2023), i discenti inglesi L1 che hanno acquisito lo spagnolo L2 hanno mostrato dei miglioramenti nella pronuncia delle consonanti sonore attraverso un soggiorno in un Paese ispanofono di circa 4 anni in cui è stata utilizzata la L2. La pronuncia della L2 non ha influenzato quella della L1; per l'influenza, è necessario un periodo di residenza maggiore e un maggiore uso della L2.[1]
Altri studi invece si concentrano sull'acquisizione della lenizione dei suoni /b, d, g/ in spagnolo, per cui da consonanti sonore occlusive/plosive diventano fricative /β, ð, ɣ/ quando sono in contesto intervocalico. Anche questi suoni possono essere difficili da modulare o percepire per un discente, per cui la produzione di output e la comprensione mostrano dei problemi. In base a uno studio di parlanti inglesi L1 che stavano acquisendo lo spagnolo L2 durante un programma di studio all'estero, è stato osservato che i discenti hanno acquisito la pronuncia di queste tre consonanti e in quale contesto da occlusive diventano fricative, per cui questo miglioramento dimostra anche la capacità del cervello di modificarsi nel tempo in base alle esperienze e ai propri bisogni linguistici (plasticità neurale); tuttavia, questi risultati di apprendimento non sono stati ritenuti dopo il rientro in patria e dunque non sono stati ritenuti nel lungo termine. Oltre a registrare questo fenomeno, l'autore ha indicato come l'esposizione costante alla L2 e la pratica dopo un'esperienza di studio all'estero è necessaria per non perdere progressi perlomeno in campo fonetico e consolidare quanto acquisito[2] (e dunque evitare il fenomeno della regressione linguistica, per cui la competenza viene erosa e eventualmente riemergono vecchi errori.
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Acquisizione della morfologia e sintassi
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Vocabolario e idiomi
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Note
[modifica | modifica wikitesto]- 1 2 3 4 Celia Gorba e Juli Cebrian, The acquisition of L2 voiced stops by English learners of Spanish and Spanish learners of English, in Speech Communication, vol. 146, 1º gennaio 2023, pp. 93–108, DOI:10.1016/j.specom.2022.12.003. URL consultato il 14 novembre 2025.
- ↑ Ratree Wayland, Rachel Meyer e Sophia Vellozzi, Lenition in L2 Spanish: The Impact of Study Abroad on Phonological Acquisition, in Brain Sciences, vol. 14, n. 9, 21 settembre 2024, pp. 946, DOI:10.3390/brainsci14090946. URL consultato il 14 novembre 2025.
Voci correlate
[modifica | modifica wikitesto]- Acquisizione delle lingue straniere
- Acquisizione del vocabolario
- Acquisizione dei verbi frasali nella lingua inglese
- Acquisizione dei verbi frasali nella lingua inglese
- Didattica acquisizionale
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In textbooks, students are asked more often to study a set of phrasal verbs after an exercise in the form of feedback than to study a set of phrasal verbs before an exercise (Strong & Boers, 2019a). Strong and Boers (2019a, 2019b) found the study-after-exercise implementation of a particle-focused format to be consistently less effective than the study-before-exercise implementation. It was also found that the errors students made in the exercise hindered their learning of the feedback. Yet, a growing body of evidence shows that incorrect guessing can improve memory for second-language vocabulary items compared to errorless learning (Potts & Shanks, 2014; Potts et al., 2019; Seabrooke et al., 2019).
https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/13621688241239058?icid=int.sj-abstract.citing-articles.15
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Researchers and educators have called for teaching practices that foster a growth mindset for learning, in which students’ attention is focused on effort rather than ability (Yeager, Paunesku, Walton, & Dweck, 2013). It is important to note, however, that emphasizing effort can backfire if students do not use effective learning strategies (Dweck, 2015). The mere exertion of effort does not produce success–only time and energy spent on effective learning strategies creates positive change. Struggling language learners who believe in language giftedness can blame failure on not having an aptitude for language, rather than on insufficient or ineffective practice (Dornyei, 2003; Graham, 2004; Horwitz, 1988, 1999; Hsieh & Schaller, 2008; Mercer & Ryan, 2010). When learners decide they do not possess a talent for languages, their self-efficacy for SLA decreases, as does their motivation to persist (Graham, 2004; Hsieh & Schaller, 2008).[1]
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Repetitive theory, also known as the Repetition Hypothesis, is a concept in second language acquisition (SLA) that highlights the importance of repetition and reiteration in the process of learning a second language. This theory posits that repeated exposure to language elements, such as vocabulary, grammar structures, and speech patterns, plays a significant role in language acquisition and proficiency development. Repetition aligns with the idea that language learning is an incremental and cumulative process, and revisiting language components multiple times can lead to better retention and comprehension.Repetitionemphasizes the importance of frequent exposure to language elements. The more a learner encounters a specific word, phrase, or structure, the more likely they are to remember and internalize it. This theory aligns with the notion that language learning isa result of repetition and practice.Repetition involves systematic review and revision. Learners should revisit previously learned material to reinforce their knowledge. This can include reviewing vocabulary, re-practicing grammar rules, and rereading texts.Repetition should take into account the context in which language is used. This means that learners should practice language elements in meaningful and authentic contexts, which aids in comprehension and application.While repetition is crucial, it is also essential to vary the ways in which language elements are practiced. This includes using different exercises, contexts, and materials to prevent monotony and enhance adaptability.Regarding the repetitive thoery, spaced repetition is a highly effective learning technique that is rooted in cognitivepsychology and has gained prominence in the field of education and language acquisition. This approach is designed to optimize memory retention and recall through strategically timed reviews of previously learned material. The framework of spaced repetition is based on the idea that information is more effectively absorbed when it is revisited at increasing intervals over time, as opposed to cramming or constant repetition.[2]
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Winitz (1978) made use of imagery; Ostyn and his colleagues took the language learning out of the classroom and made it a part of the individual language learners’ private lives (libro di Ma Qiang, 2009)
SSS e SPS
[modifica | modifica wikitesto]Jiang rejected the research method involving L2 production on the basis of the assumption that language production cannot exclude the use of explicit or declarative knowledge. Instead, he (2004: 608) opted for a receptive task in which “the morphological form available in the input should activate the related knowledge through a bottom-up process if the knowledge has been internalised”. The task is a selfpaced word by word task to check the sensitivity to subject-verb agreement in a series of sentences, like the two given below. Singular (S) or plural (P) is indicated for the head noun, the local noun, and the verb. (1) The key to the cabinet was rusty from many years of disuse. (SSS) (Jiang, 2004: 609) (2) The key to the cabinets was rusty from many years of disuse. (SPS) (Jiang, 2004: 609) Previous research (Pearlmutter et al., 1999) shows that native speakers take longer to read sentences in SPS condition, as in sentence 2, than those in SSS condition, as in sentence 1. In SPS condition both the head noun and the verb are in the singular and the two are separated by the local noun in the plural; this disagreement has somehow made the subjects spend a little more time reading the sentence. Pearlmutter et al. (1999: 435) attributed this phenomenon to native speakers’ “sensitivity to agreement violations and head/local NP (noun phrase) mismatches”. In other words, lexical processing will be disrupted when such disagreement occurs, which Jiang (2004: 609) calls the “broken agreement effect”. Following this finding, Jiang (2004) carried out a series of experiments to pin down this broken agreement effect. I only report the first experiment here. [P.57]
Jones e Haywood sequenze formulaiche e lessico accademico
[modifica | modifica wikitesto]Provide a specific methodology for teaching formulaic sequences: the study by Jones and Haywood (2004) does so. They attempt to tackle formulaic sequence acquisition in EAP (English for Academic Purposes) classes in a systematic way by presenting a clearly defined methodology for instruction. They adopt a mixed approach: Nation’s (2001) three psychological stages for vocabulary acquisition – noticing, retrieving and generating – serve as the guidelines. Concordance texts are used to enrich the language input as well as to illustrate the linguistic features of the sequences; special attention is paid to help students build up useful learning strategies. Instruction is given in a reading course and a writing course, two hours a week over a period of ten weeks.
After the reading text is comprehended, special attention is paid to formulaic sequences by highlighting them in the text. Students are told clearly that they should study certain multi-word items and try to use them in writing in order to acquire a more academically suitable style. Students are required to perform activities, with the help of concordance texts and corpus extracts, which will extend their knowledge of the meaning and usage of the sequences. The writing course In the writing course, students can review the sequences or patterns learned in the reading course and prepare for productive use. Learning activities are diversified: students are assigned writing tasks with the help of a planning session in which relevant or frequent formulaic sequences will be rehearsed or introduced; they are required to analyse the function of formulaic sequences; they are instructed to produce their own concordance texts with the help of a program. The measurement of the acquisition is based on (1) the degree of awareness of formulaic sequences, (2) the ability to produce formulaic sequences on a cloze test, and (3) the free production of formulaic sequences in writing essays.
The results are mixed. By the end of the study, most of the students have shown increased awareness of the formulaic sequences, i.e. words not only exist as individual items but also frequently appear in meaningful and useful sequences. A moderate gain is reported from the cloze test but there is no significant improvement in free production of formulaic sequences in essays. According to the two researchers, the main problem is the relatively small number of subjects, ten in all, which can hardly make the results generalisable. Nevertheless, this study shows us how formulaic sequences can be taught and learned in a systematic and meaningful way, combining DDL and other traditional means such as learning strategy training, in contrast to the prevailing previous view that they will be taken care of naturally with language exposure.
CEFR
[modifica | modifica wikitesto]pre-a1
[modifica | modifica wikitesto]inoltre si aggiungono i primissimi role-play estremamente semplici e altamente predittivi con parlata lenta per i convenevoli, l’ora e i dati personali. Vocaboli nuovi comprensibili capiti attraverso la mimica o immagini o video o traduzione,
[TIENI I VOCABOLI RAGGRUPPATI E USA I DIALOGHI IN CONTESTI/SITUAZIONI, ALTRIMENTI TUTTO DIVENTA CONFUSIONARIO O ASTRATTO. PURTROPPO IL PRE-A1 E’ IN PARTE ASTRATTO SICCOME NON PREVEDE L’USO DI MOLTA GRAMMATICA, TRA CUI LE PRIME PREPOSIZIONI DI LUOGO E ‘CON’ E ‘DA/A’]
[THE STUDENT CAN SPEAK VERY SLOWLY AND VERY CLEARLY, WITH REPETITIONS. VERY SHORT SENTENCES, THE STUDENT CAN SPEAK SIMPLE SENTENCES OR SINGLE WORDS SOMETIMES WITHOUT LINKING WORDS, USES HAND GESTURES TO ENHANCE COMPREHENSION, CAN SIGNAL REQUESTS FOR HELP IF NECESSARY SINCE THE SPEAKER ISN’T AUTONOMOUS YET, BASIC INFORMATION, STRONG USE OF BODY LANGUAGE (E.G., CONVEY EMOTIONS) AND IMMEDIATE BACKGROUND KNOWLEDGE, STRONG USE OF FORMULAIC EXPRESSIONS AND IMMEDIATE CONTEXT (HIC-ET-NUNC).
THE SPEAKER, WHILE TALKING WITH THE PRE-A1 STUDENT(S), MUST BE COLLABORATIVE, THE SPEAKER MUST SPEAK VERY SLOWLY AND VERY CLEARLY, WITH REPETITIONS, VERY SHORT SENTENCES, USES HAND GESTURES TO ENHANCE COMPREHENSION FOR THE STUDENTS, REPLIES TO REQUESTS FOR HELP FROM THE STUDENTS, CAN REPEAT IF NECESSARY AND CAN TAKE LONG PAUSES AND USE HAND GESTURES, CAN POINT TO BODY LANGUAGE AND CONTEXT, STRONG USE OF FORMULAIC EXPRESSIONS AND CONTEXT.
IL LIVELLO PRE-A1 SI BASA SU FRASI SEMPLICI, BREVI E ISOLATE, SENZA CONNETTIVI E TALVOLTA CON ESPRESSIONI FORMULAICHE E LINGUAGGIO DEL CORPO, SI PARLA DI FACCENDE E COSE DI RILEVANZA PERSONALE E QUOTIDIANE E PREVEDIBILI, ASCOLTA BENE MESSAGGI CON PAUSE E EVENTUALI RIPETIZIONI PER ASSIMILARE O ELABORARE IL SIGNIFICATO]
Can reproduce sounds in the target language if carefully guided. If he/she copies words and short sentences from a blackboard, he/she can commit orthographical mistakes.
A1
[modifica | modifica wikitesto]I can follow a short story if I listen to it and look at it several times, I can perform the actions to a song or story as I hear it,
I can draw characters and objects and events from a story as I hear it.
I can read and understand a simple, short role-play, e.g. a shopping dialogue.
I can write simple short dialogues. I can fill in the missing words in a short text. I can ask and answer questions about a familiar story in simple, short sentences, e.g. questions about a story in a children’s book. I can ask basic questions liked to the topic of A1.. I can copy words, separate sentences, short texts and poems from the textbook or board without making mistakes. I can say what I like eating and drinking or my favourite item (e.g., colour) [ciò che piace o la cosa favorita è un topic avanzato].
[CAN FOLLOW SPEECH WHICH IS SLOW AND CLEARLY ARTICULATED, SOMETIMES ACCOMPANIED BY MANUAL GESTURES, CAN REPEAT IF NECESSARY, LONG PAUSES FROM TIME TO TIME, A COLLABORATIVE SPEAKER, THE SPEAKER CAN REPEAT IF NECESSARY AND CAN TAKE LONG PAUSES AND USE HAND GESTURES AND BODY LANGUAGE. STRONG USE OF FORMULAIC EXPRESSIONS AND CONTEXT IN THE SPEECH. THE STUDENTS CAN DESCRIBE SINGLE THINGS IF PREPARED IN ADVANCE <non tutto ciò che si dice deve essere sempre e solo improvvisato al livello A1>. FRASI SEMPLICI, BREVI E ISOLATE, CON I CONNETTIVI VERAMENTE BASILARI COME ‘AND, THEN’ E TALVOLTA CON ESPRESSIONI FORMULAICHE E LINGUAGGIO DEL CORPO, SI PARLA DI FACCENDE E COSE DI RILEVANZA PERSONALE E QUOTIDIANE E PREVEDIBILI, PRONUNCIA OK TRANNE IN PAROLE DIFFICILI DA ARTICOLARE PERCHE’ ASTRUSE O PERCHE’ CONTENGONO SUONI NON ESISTENTI NELLA L1, PARLA CON PAUSE PER PENSARE O ARTICOLARE BENE PAROLE COMPLICATE, ASCOLTA BENE MESSAGGI CON LUNGHE PAUSE E EVENTUALI RIPETIZIONI PER ASSIMILARE O ELABORARE IL SIGNIFICATO. SA USARE IL DIZIONARIO PER TRADURRE DALL’ITALIANO ALL’INGLESE E VICEVERSA, ANCHE SE COMMETTE ERRORI CON I QUASI-SINONIMI OVVERO CON LE SFUMATURE DI SIGNIFICATO]
Can reproduce sounds in the target language if carefully guided. Can copy words and short sentences from the blackboard correctly. Can make spelling of known words correctly, can use punctuation correctly.
A2, A2+
[modifica | modifica wikitesto]Can understand short, simple texts on familiar matters of a concrete type (including descriptions of VIPs) which consist of high frequency everyday or job-related language.
Can follow the general outline of a news report on a familiar type of event, provided that the contents are familiar and predictable.
I can read and understand instructions for a game or medicines, with the help of pictures, e.g. instructions for a board game of unfamiliar words in short expressions used in routine everyday contexts.
Can cope with a limited number of straightforward follow up questions
I can continue a text and add missing parts.
Can write an introduction to a story or continue a story, provided he/she can consult a dictionary and references (e.g. tables of verb tenses in a course book).
I can talk to my friends about different countries.
Can ask very simply for repetition when he/she does not understand.
He/she can ask for repetition and reformulation.
I can show that I follow the speaker and can take part in the conversation, if the speaker helps me
Can use simple techniques to start, maintain, or end a short conversation
I can distinguish the tense forms, and understand when people speak about the present, past or future (A2+).
Can identify specific information in simpler written material he/she encounters such as letters, brochures and short newspaper articles describing event (A2+)
Can exploit his/her recognition of known words in L1 or L2 to deduce the meaning (A2+).
Has sufficient vocabulary to conduct routine, everyday transactions (in very short social exchanges) involving familiar situations and topics, starting with basic communicative needs and survival needs (A2 e A2+)
I can say what I usually do at home, in school, in my free time. [split] I can describe plans, arrangements and alternatives. [split] I can describe past activities and personal experiences (e.g., what I did at the weekend). I can describe what I do regularly. [split] I can describe what I did in the past. [split] I can describe what I plan to do. I can talk about things I did today and things I want to do. (A2+ nel caso di discenti di 11-15 anni, ovvero alla scuola media)
Uses some simple structures correctly, but still systematically makes basic mistakes - for example tends to mix up tenses and forget to mark agreement; nevertheless, it is usually clear what he/she is trying to say (A2 e A2+).
Conversation, e.g. start a conversation. (A2+)
I can write a short picture story from words that are provided. (A2+)
Can use the most frequently occurring connectors to link simple sentences in order to tell a story or describe something as a simple list of points. (A2+)
Can understand short, clearly articulated spoken announcements by piecing together what he/she understands from the available versions in different languages. (A2 e A2+)
Can use a <rather easy to understand> word from another language in his/her plurilingual repertoire to make him/herself understood in a routine everyday situation, when he/she cannot think of an adequate expression in the language being spoken <and can use enhanced communication to get understood>. (A2 e A2+)
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Ansia: gli altri sono più bravi di me (capire che hanno le mie stesse difficoltà mi conforta), gli altri mi supereranno presto, nel metodo naturale non si usa il libro di testo per cui mi sento insicuro oltre che confuso in un primo momento, non avere amici al corso non mi fa sentire a mio agio (comfortable). Altra soluzione: gli altri sono interessati al proprio percorso di apprendimento o acquisizione e non al mio.
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La gestione della classe, meglio nota nella letteratura scientifica internazionale come Classroom Management, è un insieme di tecniche adottate dai professori per creare un ambiente scolastico in cui vengono promossi sia l'apprendimento che il benessere degli studenti e dei professori, dunque un ambiente sostenibile, armonioso e a misura di studente e professore.
Il campo di studi, che si fonda sulla didattica e psicopedagogia, si basa su una serie di ricerche scientifiche in cui i docenti parlano delle proprie esperienze o si sottopongono a test conoscitivi; i risultati vengono dunque raccolti, discussi dagli scienziati e pubblicati.
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In a study involving 20 French children (average age 5.5) learning English, Tellier (Reference Tellier2008) asked them to learn eight common words (house, swim, cry, snake, book, rabbit, scissors, and finger). Four of the items were associated with a picture while the other four items were illustrated by a gesture that the children saw in a video and then enacted themselves. The results showed that the enacted items were memorized better than items enriched visually by means of pictures.
They trained university students to learn 36 words (nine nouns, nine adjectives, nine verbs, and nine prepositions) in an artificial language corpus. For 18 items, participants only listened to the word and read it. For the other 18 items, participants were additionally instructed to perform the gestures proposed by the experimenter. Memory performance was assessed through cued native-to-foreign translation tests at five time points. The results showed that enacting iconic gestures significantly enhanced vocabulary learning in the long run. Goldin-Meadow, Nusbaum, Kelly, and Wagner (Reference Goldin-Meadow, Nusbaum, Kelly and Wagner2001) suggested that “gesturing may prime a speaker’s access to a temporarily inaccessible lexical item and thus facilitate the processing of speech” (p. 521)—an idea consistent with the Lexical Retrieval Hypothesis proposed by Krauss, Chen, Gottesmen, and McNeill.
However, gestures need not be semantically related to words to boost word learning and recall. Studies investigating beat gestures (rhythmic hand gestures that are associated with prosodic prominence) have demonstrated that watching these gestures also favors information recall in adults.
Furthermore, recent neurophysiological evidence seems to show that self-performing a gesture when learning verbal information leads to the formation of sensorimotor networks that represent and store the words.
He found that participants remembered actions better when they were performed either by themselves or by the instructor than when the actions were simply described verbally.
All in all, the results reported by this line of work have shown that hand gestures do not make a difference when learning phonological contrasts like length contrasts in Japanese (but lips do).
https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/studies-in-second-language-acquisition/article/observing-and-producing-pitch-gestures-facilitates-the-learning-of-mandarin-chinese-tones-and-words/6BF1D83445A4C9E136CE01F7C53CE193
Nevertheless, in general a brusque diffusion is still expected by the geyser effect, i.e. “when a new construction enters the child’s grammatical repertoire, we first see only a few examples, but these are followed soon after by regular use and within a few months by an explosion of examples” (Snyder, 2007:70).
https://hal.science/hal-03018225/file/2017_tang_acquistion-of-classifiers-and-measure-words.pdf
In the generative framework, ba is widely regarded as a light verb that assigns an Accusative Case to its object (Bender, 2000; Tian, 2003; Huang et al., 2009).
This suggests that bei-construction is extremely rare in the input. Apart from syntactic complexity, bei-construction has the semantic connotation that the patient argument has undergone some adverse influence from the action of the agent argument (e.g., Shi, 2005)
In Mandarin, the difference between simplex activity verbs and resultative verb compounds has to do with telicity. A telic event has a natural endpoint, after which the event cannot conceivably continue
https://www.lingref.com/cpp/gasla/9/paper1637.pdf
Li and Xu (2009) conducted a survey on two Australian international students (native English speakers), collected negative structures as corpus through free conversation, and analyzed deviations of learners' use of ‘bù’ and ‘méi’ negative structures from three learning stages. Research shows that the mixed use of ‘bù’ and ‘méi’ is extremely complex, and this bias does not diminish as the learning stage progresses, tending to use ‘bù’ when they deny the present or the future; Learners often use a mixture of " bù" and ‘méi’ when referring to past behaviors or situations.
D. Create a Good Learning Environment
Yaoundé secondary schools can consider establishing a Chinese exchange meeting to encourage students of all grades to communicate. They can also invite Chinese native speakers to exchange their knowledge and experiences with students on how Chinese people use the negative adverbs ‘bù’ and ‘méi’. This would help them to improve their understanding of these negative adverbs.
A classroom is an essential place for students to learn Chinese, and most of the language-knowledge they gain comes from school. Cognitive psychology reveals that when a person receives new information, it is difficult for the brain to absorb a large amount of data, so the data is reduced to a portion. Therefore, teachers must consider whether the amount of knowledge and information taught is reasonable for teaching in the classroom. Too much information will overload students’ memories, resulting in ‘generalization’. Generalization occurs when there is confusion between different pieces of knowledge and the student’s nervous system stagnates, resulting in students using their knowledge in a disorganized way. Therefore, teachers should not ignore the limitations on the amount of information a student can intake in class. Information should be effectively controlled and disseminated to suit the needs of the students. For example, in teaching ‘bù’ or ‘méi’, teaching tasks should be set separately to ensure that the time is sufficient for students to learn the material, and the difficulty level is not too high. In this way, teaching activities will become more efficient.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.17507/tpls.1210.17
The term ‘transfer’ in general refers to “the extent to which knowledge and skills acquired in one situation affect a person’s learning or performance in a subsequent situation” (Ormrod 2014, 206). Transfer affects all areas of language; it is a narrower term than ‘crosslinguistic influence’, although the two are often used interchangeably (Ringbom 2012). While in SLA this notion is used across different theoretical frameworks, views about linguistic transfer have undergone considerable change. Initially, it was assumed that the ‘habits’ of the L1 would be automatically carried over into the L2; now, scholars agree that L1 transfer works in complex ways and constitutes only one of the many factors and processes involved in L2 acquisition (Gass 1996). Research has shown that transfer-related differences apply mainly to early stages of learning: as learning progresses, all learners apply strategies and processes that are closer and closer to the TL (Ringbom 2012, 399). Traditionally, two types of transfer were distinguished: ‘positive transfer’ takes place when the influence of previous knowledge leads to flawless or rapid acquisition/use of new knowledge; ‘negative transfer’, on the other hand, occurs when such influence leads to errors or acquisitional issues.
TL words and structures without L1 parallels provide the learner with no concrete item transfer and are therefore often avoided as they are perceived as redundant. At one stage children learning L1 frequently produce forms like runned, goed for ran, went, thus avoiding what they apparently perceive as unnecessary redundancy for expressing past tense. Similarly, L2 learners initially also avoid what is perceived as redundant in the TL. (Ringbom 2012, 399; emphasis added).
Moreover, studies show that, with respect to other L2 linguistic features, L2 word order is comparatively more influenced by L1 word order (James 1998).








